Max Weber- Administrative Thinkers

Max Weber

Weber was primarily a sociologist. Referring to his work, he can be referred to at most as a political sociologist or a political economist. His contribution to Administration has been incidental to his sociological studies. His study on rationality and process of rationalization in the modern world has contributed towards the theory on bureaucracy. His theory on bureaucracy has gained status to the extent that the name Weber and the concept of Bureaucracy is being treated synonymous. Weber is the first theorist who took the concept bureaucracy out of its pejorative meaning.

Unlike the other theorists of the classical period, Weber was an academician. He developed his theory in the context of the government organizations. Since, he also believed in the generic view of administration, his theory of bureaucracy was also applicable to the private organizations.

One of the important characteristics of the modern western society is rationalization. It is a process that involves consistency, logic or reason. It also involves a logical correlation between the means and the end.

Weber says that Rationalization is a process that does not involve magical elements. Weber came across a phenomenon called as “Domination”. Domination is a relationship between the ruler and the ruled whereby the ruler has the right to rule and the ruled has the duty to obey.

Weber has studied “domination” in the context of various organizations such as religious bodies, economic bodies, government bodies etc. While studying in the context of religious and economic bodies, he referred to “domination” being based on the constellation of interest. While studying in the context of government bodies, he referred to “domination” as authority.

Domination based on Authority

Power is the ability to get things done irrespective of resistance in a communal or social situation.

Legitimacy refers to exercise of power based on values those are accepted by the subjects in a society.

A legitimate exercise of power is Authority. (Power + Legitimacy = Authority)

In order to study Authority, he used a methodology called as “Ideal Type”. Ideal Type is not something which is perfect or could be considered as a role model or something which is average. It is derived from the concept of “idea”. “Ideal Type” is a mental construct or a mental map of the researcher or it is a one sided exaggeration of the reality or it is a researcher’s imagination in order to act as a reference point so as to observe compare and classify the reality so as to derive hypothesis and generalizations. It is a utopia which is though derived from reality is not found in reality.

Weber’s study was very comprehensive. It was both, historical and contemporaneous. It was based on both primary sources and secondary sources. It was historical in the sense that Weber undertook his studies during the latter part of the 19^th century. By that time, a lot of study had already taken place on these subjects. It was contemporaneous in the sense that he took present existing conditions into regard.

By using Ideal Type, Weber came out with a Threefold Classification of Authority.

1.      Traditional Authority- Weber refers to a type of authority, obedience to which is based on tradition, customs and conventions. It is a type of authority which is based on the fact that certain things are to be obeyed because those are used to be obeyed. It emphasized on the importance of the eternal past.

a.       Patriarchal Traditional Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on age. The individual who is the eldest exercises the power. Most of the societies are male dominated so normally the eldest male exercises the power.

b.      Patrilineal Traditional Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on lineage.

2.      Charismatic Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on the extraordinary qualities or exceptional personality.

3.      Legal Rational Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on law. According to Weber, this is the most rational form of authority. He says laws are established through a process and carries a purpose.

Charismatic Authority is the most temporary or provisional form of authority. Charismatic Authority is based on the exception qualities which are relevant to the situation. Weber says situation changes and as the situation changes, the charismatic authority comes under threat. The charismatic authority which comes under threat will either dismantle itself or it might decide to continue. If it decides to continue, it can continue by converting itself into traditional authority or legal rational authority. But, in modern society, it mostly converts itself into legal rational authority. This is the process through which charismatic authority continues itself. This is referred to as routinization of charisma or institutionalization of charisma.

Weber has considered the charismatic authority of being capable of bringing about fastest possible changes because under the traditional authority, change affects the source of authority and under the legal rational authority; the change has to follow the due process. But, charismatic authority has little limitations.

Weber was not only interested in understanding the relationship between the ruler and the ruled but also the manner in which the ruler exercised their rule over the ruled. In that particular context, he entered into the domain of administration. In this context, in order to understand administration, he also used the “Ideal Type” Methodology.

Administrative Systems 

1.      Traditional Authority

a.       Patrimonial Administrative System- It is a highly centralized administrative system. The functionaries are treated as the personal servants of the Supreme Authority. Various functionaries derive their power out of their loyalty towards the Supreme Authority. It is based on the principle of “loyalty is bartered with power”. It is a type of system where there is a heightened importance of primordial identities such as region, caste, language etc.

 A good example is that of Monarchical Administration. In such a system, king is considered to be the supreme authority. Every other functionary owes his/her position to the king.

b.      Feudal Administrative System- It is a comparatively autonomous administrative system. Functionaries for their remuneration are not dependant on the Supreme Authority rather they have their own source of remuneration. Rest of the characteristics of this system are in close resemblance with that of the Patrimonial System. Weber has conceived Feudal Administrative System in the background of the Western European Feudalism.

Western European Feudalism- In Western Europe, Kingship System was prevalent. The head of the state was the King. The kingdom was divided into various feudal areas which were owned by the Feudal Lords. A king might himself be a feudal lord of any feudal area. The entire authority relating to the Feudal Area was vested with Feudal Lords. Feudal Lords used to raise taxes and were not dependent upon the king for remuneration. Feudal Lords shared a part of their taxes with the King and in turn, King provided them protection through his army.

2.      Charismatic Authority- It has no Administrative System. There are only followers and disciples. There have been certain exceptions where the charismatic authority tried to establish administrative system and wherever it had been, it had been the Patrimonial Administrative System.

3.      Legal Rational Authority- The administrative system under this type of authority is called as Bureau or Bureaucracy. Weber says that Bureaucracy is the most rational form of organization. Even though Weber was not the first one to theorize on bureaucracy nor did he coin the term bureaucracy nor did he define bureaucracy, both prior to Weber and post- Weber, his idea on bureaucracy has been one of the most important conceptualization on bureaucracy. Yet, his theory assumes critical significance. His importance lies in providing a detailed, elaborate, functional and structural characterization of bureaucracy.

a.       Bound by Impersonal Law- Bureaucracy is a type of organization in which the functionaries do no act as per their own choices or whims and fancies. Rather, they act as per the prescriptions of the law or the provisions of the law. These laws are impersonal or neutral to various individuals occupying the positions within the organization.

b.      Sphere of Competence- Within bureaucracy, every position carries a defined area of responsibility while carrying the required authority and skill.

c.       Hierarchy- Bureaucracy is a hierarchic or layered organization in which there is a clearly established relationship between the superordinate and the subordinate. Further, the line of authority from the top of the organization to the bottom of the organization is clearly established.

d.      Meritocracy- The recruitment into bureaucracy is based on expertise or ability. Further, the individual within the organization operates with a contractual relation i.e. while individual remains under obligation towards the job but personally remains free.

e.       Impersonal Detachment- Within bureaucracy, there is a separation between ‘the personal office and the public office’ and ‘personal property and private property’.

f.       Career Service- For an individual functionary, the occupation in bureaucracy is a career i.e. a lifelong engagement and the engagement in bureaucracy is the only engagement. Individuals in bureaucracy gradually move from lower amount of responsibility, authority and remuneration towards higher amount of responsibility, authority and remuneration.

g.      Written Records- In this administrative system, the administrative acts, decisions and rules are maintained in writing. They are not conducted orally.

h.      Non- Appointed Head- Bureaucracy is an appointed body of officials being headed by a non-appointed official or having a political head. Weber has conceived the concept of Bureaucracy in the context of Modern Democratic Setup.

4.      Functional Characteristics of the Bureaucracy- Bureaucracy is scientific, rational, technical, impersonal, impartial (non-discriminatory), neutral (politically unbiased), carrying honesty and integrity and operating with precision and predictability (it operates on the basis of impersonal laws and scientific approach). Thereby, according to Weber, it is the most efficient form of organization. It is said that “Weber is the first theorist who took out bureaucracy from its negative meaning”. But, Weber has not blind towards the limitations of Bureaucracy.

5.      Limitations of Bureaucracy

a.       Problem of Alienation within the Bureaucracy- Here, Weber is referring to the separation of the individual from his own self. Weber further says that because of Impersonal Detachment and Career Service, the members of the bureaucracy gradually face the problem of alienation i.e. they gradually get separated from their own self. Bureaucracy turns out to be an iron cage from where there is no escape. This phenomenon has been referred to as “Phenomenon of Golden Cage” (Golden because it provides power and privilege and Cage because it curtails freedom and makes the person an automaton) by various other theorists. C. Wright Mills has called this phenomenon as “Prostitution of Personalities” (In order to suit the job, the person adopts a separate personality other than his own self).

b.      Problem of Institutional Character of Bureaucracy- Weber has theorized his concept of bureaucracy in light of Modern Democracy. As per Weber, the State is an instrument to achieve the purpose of the society and goals of its citizens. State is a means to an end and not an end in itself (Staatraison- German Term). State cannot achieve its purpose without expertise or technicism or without a disciplined group of professional manpower. Bureaucracy is a form of organization which is ingrained in the purpose of the state. Bureaucracy is also a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Bureaucracy is instrumental in character.

Weber says that Bureaucracy is a professional body of official which exercises power. But, there is a possibility that bureaucracy instead of using power or exercising power for the purpose of the state or the society, it might misuse or abuse the power for its own private purpose or goal. Thereby, it being instrumental in nature, it might turn institutional. Institutional here refers to becoming an end in itself rather than being a means to an end. But, Weber is not pessimistic on this account. He is optimistic about a solution for this problem in bureaucracy. He considers certain solutions such as:

                                                              i.      Separation of Power

                                                            ii.      Collegiality

                                                          iii.      Amateurism

                                                          iv.      Direct Democracy

                                                            v.      Representative Democracy

He finally accepted “Representative Democracy” as a viable solution to address the problem of Institutional Bureaucracy. Representative Democracy being a loop-based democracy, the citizens will be able to control bureaucracy, its actions and intention through the exercise of control over the representatives who in turn will control bureaucracy as per the views and interests of the citizens and the society.

6.      Emergence of Bureaucracy- According to Weber, the rise of bureaucracy has been because of

a.       Capitalism- It is a type of economic system which is based on the idea of private investment and profit. It is a type of economic system which prefers stability in the environment. Bureaucracy as an institutional development which is based on an impersonal law provides stable and predictive environment. Thus, Capitalism became one of the factors for the rise of bureaucracy.

b.      Industrialization-Industrialization had a critical impact on the size and functioning of the organizations. Organizations became big in size and large in operation. They could be no longer managed in an unprofessional and unscientific manner. They required a scientific approach. This provided a basis for the rise of bureaucracy.

c.       Democracy- Democracy as a philosophy promotes impartiality, ensures equality and envisages a state which works towards the welfare of the people. Democratic spirit can only be furthered where discrimination does not exist. This is only possible when the law is impersonal in nature. Bureaucracy works within the framework of impersonal law. Hence, bureaucracy grew with democracy.

Democracy promotes welfare of people but this cannot be provided without the requisite expertise or professionalism. This expertise and scientific approach can be provided by bureaucracy. Thus, democracy provided a suitable environment for the bureaucracy to nurture.

d.      Money Economy- Money economy provided a basis for the mode of exchange. The prices of goods and services were fixed. Bureaucracy is a hierarchic organization with a sphere of competence i.e. every position has ad defined responsibility and authority. Bureaucracy being hierarchic in nature, responsibility and authority within the organization is unequally distributed. Thereby, different remuneration is given to persons performing different types of responsibilities. This required standardization of remuneration in the mode of payment and this standardization is only possible in case of a Money Economy. Thus, Money Economy provided a basis for the rise of bureaucracy.