Contemporary Theories on Motivation

Contemporary Theories on Motivation

These are referred to as contemporary theories because these theories are able to more appropriately explain the phenomenon of the motivation in the contemporary organizations. There are eight theories in this regard. I will deal with the ERG Theory, Cognitive Evaluation Theory and Job Design Theory in this article.

1.      ERG Theory

2.      Cognitive Evaluation Theory

3.      Job Design Theory

4.      The Equity Theory

5.      Goal Setting Theory

6.      The Achievement Motivation Theory

7.      Expectancy Theory of Motivation

8.      Porter and Lawler’s Theory

ERG Theory

It has been developed by Clayton Alderfer. He has developed his theory while modifying Maslow’s theory. Thus, he has used the concept of ‘Need’ in his theory. The studies conducted which became the basis for his theory found out that as far as the individuals are concerned; they are primarily motivated by an urge to satisfy three types of Needs.

1.      Existence Needs- These refer to Physiological and Safety/Security Need by Maslow.

2.      Relatedness Needs- These refer to Social Need and the extrinsic part of the Self-Esteem Need (Social Status).

3.      Growth Needs- These refer to the intrinsic part of the Esteem Need and Self-Actualization.

These needs are overlapping with the five needs of Maslow. The study found that the concept of Prepotency of need and the concept of Need hierarchy given by Maslow is questionable. CRG theory says that as far as an individual’s motivation is concerned, it might not necessarily arise out of satisfaction of one need rather the individual might seek satisfaction of more than one need at a given point of time. The Prepotency of need not necessarily follows the sequence as established by Maslow. Alderfer believes that the emergence of these needs is random. There cannot be a fixed sequence to it. Thus, this theory is highlighting two things.

1.      The Prepotency of the need may not follow the Maslow’s need hierarchy. The very emergence of the need may be at any level. Any need may become prepotent at any given point of time.

2.      This theory has emphasized that these characters of the individual’s need vary from each other because every individual has his/her own experiences and background.

3.      It has also discussed a phenomenon called as Frustration-Regression Dimension. An individual being frustrated with a higher order need develops an urge to satisfy or attain more and more of the lower order need.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

This theory has established the relationship between the extrinsic and intrinsic factors while influencing the behaviour of the individual. The introduction of the extrinsic factors influences the effect of intrinsic factors and weakens the intrinsic factor’s influence over the individual. This explains the lack of motivation among the individuals in various organizations.

While this theory explains administrative behaviour in a pleasing manner but still it suffers from some infirmities.

1.      Though it explains the extrinsic factor influencing the intrinsic factors, but it fails to explain how the strength of the intrinsic factor can be maintained in the background of the introduction of the extrinsic factors.

2.      This theory has been developed while conducting the studies with groups of students rather than groups of employees. Thus, its findings are questionable.

3.      Some subsequent studies were undertaken and those studies revealed that this theory is not applicable to explain the jobs which carry high intrinsic factors or certain type of jobs which are higher in terms of job Content. A job where intrinsic factors are high, in such a scenario, the extrinsic factors are not influence the intrinsic factors. This is particularly in the higher levels of an organization.

4.      At the same time, the studies also found that job which in terms of content is low, for them the extrinsic factors are motivational or extrinsic factors act as motivators. The cognitive evaluation theory is more relevant to explain the jobs where the job in terms of job content is more intermediate. Thus, his theory is more relevant at the intermediate levels of an organization.

Job Design Theory

It says that an individual’s motivation to work largely arises out of certain psychological antecedents of the individual which in fact define individual’s motivation or lack of motivation. This theory maintains that every job carries certain characteristics and these characteristics are responsible for development of psychological feelings. These psychological feelings form the cognitive antecedents defining the individual’s motivation or lack of motivation.

1.      Skill Variety- It refers to the extent to which the job requires multiple skills or a single skill. If the job requires multiple skills, it is high on skill variety and if the job requires single skill, it is low on skill variety.

2.      Task Identity- It refers to the extent to which the job is related to the completion of the whole of the work or the job is related to complete work or the extent to which the job is related to an identifiable piece of work or a part of the larger identity. If it is related to whole of the work, it is high on task identity and if it is related to a part of the work, it is low on task identity.

3.      Task Significance- It refers to the extent to which the job influences/impacts the performance of other jobs or the extent to which the other jobs are dependent on this job. If other jobs are dependent on this job, the job is high on task significance and if other jobs are not dependent on this job, the job is low on task significance.

4.      Autonomy- It refers to the extent to which the job allows freedom in defining the job. If the job allows freedom, it is high on autonomy and if the job does not allow freedom, it is low on autonomy.

5.      Feedback- It refers to the extent to which the information is available about the performance of the job. If the information is available, the job is high on feedback and if the information is not available, the job is low on feedback.

This theory says that these characteristics in a job are responsible for the feeling of meaningfulness in an individual.

If on account of any of the first three factors (Skill variety, task identity and task significance) the job is rated high, the individual gets a feeling of meaningfulness or worthiness.

If autonomy is high, the individual derives a feeling of responsibility from the job.

If feedback is high, the individual derives a feeling of knowledge or being knowledgeable or being informed.

Job Design Theory
Skill Variety	Feeling of Meaningfulness
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy	Feeling of responsibility
Feedback	Feeling of being informed or knowledge

The individual’s motivation depends on the individual’s psychological feeling of meaningfulness, responsibility and knowledge.

This theory implicates that a manager should focus on these characteristics in order to keep the individuals motivated.

This theory was subsequently modified through the Social Information Processing Model by introducing additional cognitive factors. This model argued that the characteristics of the job are more perceptual in nature rather than being in reality. These characteristics differ from individual to individual. A particular job high on task significance might appear low on task significance to other individual. The manager while organizing the job should try to understand the subjective perception of the individuals towards the job. It is one of the most acceptable theories in the contemporary period.