Contemporary Theories on Motivation - II

Abraham Maslow

These are referred to as contemporary theories because these theories are able to more appropriately explain the phenomenon of the motivation in the contemporary organizations. There are eight theories in this regard. I will deal with the following theories in this article.

1.      The Equity Theory

2.      Goal Setting Theory

3.      The Achievement Motivation Theory

The Equity Theory

It emphasizes that an individual within the organization undergoes through multiple psychological processes of comparison. This psychological process of comparison is undertaken across the individual’s feeling of satisfaction which is based on the analysis and comparison of individual’s input as against the individual’s output (Net Satisfaction). This comparison gives rise to an experience or feeling of equity or a feeling on inequity within an individual. Equity refers to a psychological feeling of fairness or justice. Inequity refers to a feeling of unfairness or injustice. Further, the inequity could be classified as

1.      Over inequity i.e. over rewarded inequity.

2.      Under inequity i.e. under rewarded inequity.

This equity is experienced when the psychological process of comparison establishes that the individual’s current net satisfaction is equal to the referent net satisfaction. Individual experiences inequity when the current satisfaction is either less or more than the referent net satisfaction. Inequity is a state of imbalance and thereby, every individual has a spontaneous tendency to move towards equity. Over rewarded inequity gives rise to the feeling of guilt and under rewarded inequity gives rise to the feeling of frustration. This tendency gives rise to certain kinds of behavioural initiatives because individual always tend to move away from inequity and attain equity. The individual goes through a multiple processes of comparison.

This theory emphasizes that the individual within the organization undergoes psychological comparison across four dimensions.

1.      Self-Inside- It refers to the individual comparing with oneself by being in multiple other positions within the organization. This might result into a feeling of equity or inequity.

2.      Self-Outside- It refers to the individual comparing with oneself by placing himself in multiple other positions outside the organization. Simon discussed this concept in his theory of Zero Point.

3.      Other’s Inside- It refers to the individual comparing with others occupying other positions within the organization. It might result into a feeling of equity or inequity.

4.      Other’s Outside- It refers to the individual comparing with others occupying positions outside the organization.

Behavioural Initiatives under this theory

1.      Changing the input- The individual tends to increase or decrease his input to attain equity.

2.      Changing the output- The individual tends to increase or decrease his output to attain equity.

3.      Changing the perception of the self- In order to attain equity, one might go for change in perception in oneself.

4.      Changing the perception about others- In order to attain equity, one might go for change in perception about others.

5.      Changing the Referent or Reference Point- In order to attain equity, one might go for change in the Referent Point.

6.      Leaving the Field- In order to attain equity, one might just leave the organization.

This theory was based on the principle of Distributive Justice. But, later on, it was reorganized or redefined through the principle of distributive justice along with the principle of procedural justice i.e. the feeling of equity or inequity is not only a bi-product of comparison of distribution of benefits but also the analysis of the manner of distribution of these benefits.

Goal Setting Theory

This theory emphasizes that the individual’s effort increases when the goal is specific rather than being vague. Individual’s Motivation increases when the goal is specific, there is feedback and the job provides personal responsibility. Feedback is useful provided there is personal participation or the individual’s participation.

This theory has also identified certain situational factors.

1.      Goal Commitment- If a job is assigned with the knowledge of others, the motivations/commitment towards the job increases.

2.      Self-Efficacy- It is the individual’s perception about one’s own ability. Individuals who are high on efficacy, being faced with negative feedback or failure, increase their efforts and individuals who are low on self-efficacy, being faced with negative feedback or failure, decrease their efforts.

3.      Task Structure- If the task is new or provides autonomy or task is being well laid out, it will bring out motivation. If the task is old or complex, it will retard motivation.

4.      National Culture- The explanations under this theory are culture specific or culturally bound. In certain cultures, these explanations might not be as effective as they are in some other culture.

The Achievement Motivation Theory

This theory has also been development on the basis of ‘need’. In this theory, three needs have been identified.

1.      Need for Achievement- It refers to individual’s urge to succeed or individual’s need for accomplishment.

2.      Need for Affiliation- It refers to individual’s urge to work in a socially likeable environment.

3.      Need for Power- It refers to individual’s urge to control other’s behaviour as per one’s own liking.

In this theory, only the need for achievement has been considered. The other two needs have been underemphasized. As per this theory, the individuals who are high on need for achievement are not simply the individuals desirous to succeed. Only a particular category of individuals are categorized under this theory. Individuals who are high on need for achievement do not like jobs which have no inherent risk or very high inherent risk involved. They like to take up jobs which involve an intermediate amount of difficulty. These people get motivated when they are given a job which carries intermediate amount of difficulty, personal responsibility and feedback. This theory has not adequately dealt with the other two needs. As per this theory, a successful leader is one who is high on need for power and low on need for affiliation. Though, these findings have been subsequently contested by other theorists.

This theory has also found out that the individuals who are high on need for achievement have been very successful functionaries when they were given independent responsibilities such head of an organization or head of a project or undertaking entrepreneurial activities. But, when they were part of a group, they were not successful.